Introduction
Gender mainstreaming is one of the central aspects that should be measured to create effective disaster risk reduction and community resilience (Delaney & Shrader, 2000; Ariyabandu & Wickramasinghe, 2003). Both women and men are exposed to disaster hazards but in a different way. This is caused by their different role in the social structure and the different capacity that they have in terms of disaster preparedness, needs, and vulnerabilities. Moreover, women are more vulnerable and most affected by disasters (Ginige, et al., 2008).
1 Jenderal Soedirman University, Central Java, Indonesia, Email: triyum26@gmail.com
2 Global Disaster Resilience Centre University of Huddersfield, United Kingdom
Increasing decentralization across developing countries during the last three decades has transformed local governments into the central actors in local development (World Bank, 2008). Local governments were given many responsibilities, provided with increased resources, and allowed greater autonomy to decide on local policies and services in promoting sustainable development. Therefore, the local agencies have more power to mobilize their own fiscal capacities and adjust their own budget towards the gender mainstreaming agenda. The decentralization policy and the democratic principle have encouraged local agencies to develop a gender mainstreaming agenda due to their direct attachment to the local community and organizations (Rees, 2015).
Hence, local government capability in managing disaster risk reduction and building local disaster resilience including integrating gender-mainstreaming strategies into local disaster risk reduction and resilience is vital (UNISDR, 2012). However, it is less understood how local governments take into account various issues of gender vulnerability and capacity to realize safer cities. Therefore, studying the capability of local governments in mainstreaming gender equality is important for disaster risk reduction. The potential roles of local governments are quite large in empowering local organizations, building community capacity, financially supporting the gender equality agenda, and allocating resources (Rees, 2005). Moreover, the government has overlooked this issue because the activism towards this agenda has always been a major concern for non-governmental organizations rather than public agencies (True and Mintrom, 2001). The objective of this study is to identify the capability requirements of local government institutions. This capability is used to mainstream gender equality, which can act as a useful guide for policymakers and implementers in integrating gender mainstreaming into local disaster risk reduction strategies and resilience building. In doing so, it explores the drivers of mainstreaming gender within local level disaster risk reduction and resilience. It addresses various issues of mainstreaming gender within earthquake regions in Indonesia, in particular in Bantul District of Yogyakarta Province.
The main aim of this paper is to identify the capability requirement of local government institutions; this paper is structured as to answer the research question. This paper starts with a theoretical framework that elaborates the definition of gender mainstreaming, aspects of gender vulnerability, and gender-related capability requirements. The next sections discuss the methodology of the study. Then, the findings on the capability of local governments in turning the gender mainstreaming agenda into policy are presented. The discussion and conclusion are presented at the end of this section.
Theoretical Review
Gender mainstreaming is a concept that reinvents, restructures, and rebrands a key part of feminism in the current era by introducing and promoting a new form of gendered political and policy practice for theory development, theoretically and practically (Walby, 2005). For years, gender inequality has been a major issue but it remains untouched by public agencies, despite commitments to embed this agenda into the political arena (Daly, 2005). This issue is raised to prevent gender-based discriminatory practices from becoming a major 'common sense'. Regarding disaster risk reduction, gender mainstreaming can reduce the vulnerability of women due to their different role in the social structure and their different capacity in terms of disaster preparedness and needs. Therefore, gender mainstreaming should be one of the most important concerns in disaster risk reduction policies.
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Neumayer and Plümper (2007) have elaborated a conceptual perspective of gender vulnerability. They argued that mortality caused by disaster hazards is likely to be genderspecific. Therefore, some aspects need to be considered in discussing gender vulnerability. These aspects are biological and physiological differences; social norms and role behaviors; discrimination in access to resources; and the breakdown of social order. These aspects are related to gendered capability requirements in the issue of disaster risk reduction. The agenda to mainstream gender equality into disaster risk reduction needs a capability to manage the genderrelated issue because the key characteristics of disasters affect women unevenly (Fothergill, 1996b). Coppola (2008) has elaborated the gender-related capability requirements that follow the stages of disaster risk reduction, i.e. mitigating, preparing, responding and recovering. Meanwhile, Moser and Moser (2005) have developed a resource capability assessment which includes (1) strong women leadership; (2) strong support from NGOs for promoting gendered risk reduction; (3) high women groups' participation; (4) adequate financial resources supporting gender mainstreaming programs; (5) the capacity of local gender institution; (6) policy and program design linked to disaster risk reduction and resilience; (7) appropriate tools for gender mainstreaming; (8) the political will of the government; (9) gender-sensitive budgeting; and (10) the availability of gender vulnerability assessments. These resource capabilities can be applied to all gender-related capability requirements. This is because the resource capabilities can mobilize the capability requirement and translate it into a gender mainstreaming agenda.
Methodology
A single case study was used to identify the benefits of gender mainstreaming and key local government capability. Primary data was collected through in-depth interviews with 18 informants consisting of policymakers, NGOs, and local leaders who have experience working in post-earthquake reconstruction in Bantul. The authors also used a questionnaire to measure the key indicators of local government capability in mainstreaming gender into disaster risk reduction. In total, 100 respondents were interviewed, consisting of local policymakers and community leaders who worked during post-disaster reconstruction in Bantul. The questionnaires were distributed starting from June 2013 and completed in January 2014.
Qualitative data were analyzed using qualitative content analysis in particular to explore the local government response to earthquake disasters. It requires in-depth inquiry about respondents' attitudes and opinions about these issues (Remenyi, et al., 1998). Meanwhile, quantitative data were analyzed using a mean score to determine the rank of each determinant. A higher mean score means a higher rank. One sample t-test was used to determine whether the mean score of a particular determinant is significantly different compared with other determinants. The authors used standard p-value <1% to determine the statistical significance of each determinant.
Gender-related Resource Capability
Integrating gender with post-disaster reconstruction management is important to achieve sustainable reconstruction. Enarson and Chakrabarti (2009) point out that when women are empowered, they have the capacity and the inner will to improve their situation and gain control over their own lives and families. Hence, they are not only vulnerable to disaster but they are also effective agents of adaptation and disaster mitigation (Delaney & Shrader, 2000). They have skills and knowledge for creating community resilience and enhancing the sustainability of post-disaster reconstruction.
Mainstreaming gender into post-earthquake reconstruction in Bantul shows that women grassroots have understanding, evidence, knowledge, networks, and resources to enhance reconstruction outcomes. This study reveals the roles of women grassroots at Bantul in creating environmental, economic and social sustainability. With regard to environmental sustainability, they not only participated in creating a healthy environment such as by providing and maintaining safe water and clean sanitation but also by establishing a green environment surrounding their village. They also actively promoted and implemented organic farming and food production such as organic rice, fruits, and vegetables. These organic products have become trademark products of Bantul following the reconstruction. Women grassroots organize themselves to plant trees along village's roads and gardens. They established Tanaman obat keluarga groups that aim to plant indigenous herbs and medical plants near their homes. Women also played an important role in finding solutions to waste management problems by establishing creative waste recycle contributions (i.e. rubbish bank arcades, vertical gardens from soda bootless, and handicrafts). They were also actively involved in kerja bakti and kampong improvement programs to maintain a healthy and green environment in the village.
Table 1. Local resource capability assessment of mainstreaming gender into Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)
| mean | t-statistics | rank | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| t | sd | |||
| Strong women leadership | 4.8 | 58.9* | 0.5 | 1 |
| Strong support from NGOs | 4.8 | 58.5* | 0.5 | 2 |
| for promoting gendered risk | ||||
| reduction | ||||
| High women groups' | 4.7 | 58.8* | 0.5 | 3 |
| participation | ||||
| Adequate financial resources | 4.7 | 58.4* | 0.5 | 4 |
| supporting gender | ||||
| mainstreaming program | ||||
| Capacity of local gender | 4.7 | 56.6* | 0.5 | 5 |
| institution | ||||
| Policy and program design | 4.7 | 56.6* | 0.5 | 6 |
| linked disaster risk reduction | ||||
| and resilience | ||||
| Appropriate tools for gender | 4.7 | 56.6* | 0.5 | 7 |
| mainstreaming | ||||
| Political will of government | 4.7 | 57.6* | 0.5 | 8 |
| Gender sensitive budgeting | 4.6 | 57.3* | 0.5 | 9 |
| Availability of gender | 4.6 | 56.5* | 0.5 | 10 |
| vulnerability assessment | ||||
Regarding economic sustainability, women played a role in reducing poverty following the earthquake in Bantul. Generating income to fulfil family needs was the main aim of women groups. They created arisan or Rotating and Saving Credit Associations (ROSCAs) to solve issues of limited cheap funding for running their small business. Moreover, some of the women groups that managed the ROSCAs collaborated with the district government to provide cheap loans and training for running their small business post-disaster. Gender inclusiveness is strongly embedded in promoting local economic programs to ensure sustainability. With regard to social sustainability, the authors found that women have vital roles in creating community safety and security, strengthening community social capital, increasing access to community services, and improving village decision making. As a women activist explained, "women groups across villages have engaged to maintain community security. For example, they
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mobilize themselves to patrol and to monitor around communities in the morning when their husband is at work..." (interview with a women activist). Moreover, women across the village were involved in Posyandu, a community based vehicle to improve child and mother survival and development. Through this group, women and children can get cheap and free access to health services provided by the government.
The effectiveness of gender mainstreaming in Bantul's local government cannot be separated from a good cooperation with communities and NGOs during re-building. Table 1 shows the results of the local resource capability assessment conducted among policymakers, implementers and community leaders involved in the reconstruction process.
The assessment of the local capability in mainstreaming gender into disaster risk reduction shows that strong women leadership, support from NGOs, high women groups' participation, adequate financial resources, and capacity of local gender institution are among the most important factors for effective gender mainstreaming in Bantul District. Strong women leadership and high women groups' participation represents the importance of integrating gender capacities within disaster risk reduction. Hence, gender capacities represent women's skills, knowledge and networks gained particularly through their experience.
During disasters, women's capacities are frequently recognized through their collective action, which are important aspects for recovering from disasters. In Bantul, for example, women grassroots organizations have vital insight, information, experience, networks, and resources within disaster relief and reconstruction as they increase the resilience and sustainability of reconstruction outcomes. Meanwhile, support from non-government organizations, particularly international donors, relates to adequacy financial support for rebuilding communities. In the case of Bantul's reconstruction, abundant support from international and national donor helped communities not only in providing financial resources but also in providing gender expertise. Existing gender expertise is useful to enhance the effectiveness of gender mainstreaming in the reconstruction process. The capacity of local gender institutions focuses on the ability of district institutions, especially women empowerment agencies, in promoting gender equality within each process of the reconstruction. The effectiveness of local women empowerment agencies is vital since they have the responsibility to ensure gender inclusiveness after the reconstruction is finished and all international donors leave Bantul.
Discussion and Conclusion
Mainstreaming gender into disaster risk reduction needs not only standard planning practices but also the capability to manage it because the key characteristics of disasters affect women unevenly (Fothergill, 1996a). Gender mainstreaming is the process of assessing the consequences of disasters for women and men of any disaster reduction plan and action for reducing the detrimental effect of disasters. Gender mainstreaming is a strategy for including women's as well as men's concerns and experiences within all phases of disaster reduction policies and programs (Enarson and Chakrabarti, 2009).
The increasing decentralization across developing countries during the last three decades has transformed local government into the central actor in local development (World Bank, 2008). Hence, local government capability in mainstreaming gender determines the effectiveness of disaster risk reduction and resilience. Local government capability includes the ability to use and access needed resources beyond actual resource availability. It is often rooted in resources endogenous to the community that rely on traditional knowledge, indigenous skills, and solidarity networks. The ways in which capabilities are mobilized in times of crisis reflect
coping strategies. Coping strategies refer to the way in which individuals and organizations use current resources to attain various beneficial outcomes from disasters (UNISDR, 2002).
The lessons learned from Bantul's case include some essential forms of local capability for mainstreaming gender into the process of disaster risk reduction and resilience. Some of them confirm Moser and Moser (2005) findings. This essential gender mainstreaming capability includes: (1) strong leadership and political will of the government for mainstreaming gender equality; (2) the ability of gender institutions to ensure gender representation; (3) the availability of gender analysis using gender disaggregate data; (4) adequate gender expertise that understands gender policy design in the context of disaster management; and (5) existing policy and program design that is linked to all aspects of disaster risk reduction and resilience.
Moreover, increasing gender vulnerability and neglecting gender capacity are two main gender inequality issues within disaster reconstruction, which are challenges to achieve sustainable reconstruction. The lesson from the Bantul local government shows that gender mainstreaming strategies within sustainable reconstruction should not only incorporate strategies for protecting women vulnerability but also strategies for promoting women capacity. Both strategies are needed to create gender equality and women empowerment, which both are fundamental for sustainable reconstruction.
Table 2. Gendered related capability requirement within disaster risk reduction and resilience
| Stage | Types of gender vulnerability | Process | Capability requirement | Output | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mitigating | Lack of women access and voices in hazard mitigation | Identify and analyze gender-associated risk | Evaluation, monitoring, and dissemination | A gendered sensitive warning system and gendered risk and disaster assessment | |
| Preparing | Lack of women access and voices in disaster risk education and dissemination | Educate and disseminate gender- sensitive disaster risk | Planning, exercise, training, and logistics | Gender-sensitive education program on disaster risk reduction | |
| Lack of women access to gendered disaster training and exercise | management expertise | ||||
| Responding | Lack of women access to emergency and relief services | Emergency and relief services meet gender needs and concerns | Need assessment coordination, information exchange, and logistics expertise | Gender-sensitive emergency and relief system | |
| Recovering | Shortage of women voices and leadership within the recovery and reconstruction process | Restore women well-being and improve their disaster coping strategies and resilience | Disaster recovery and reconstruction assistance skill | Gender-sensitive recovery and reconstruction | |
Table 2 provides a summary of research findings that identify types of gender vulnerability and capability requirements within each stage of disaster risk reduction. Following Coppola (2008), 184 Tri Yumarni
disaster risk reduction can be divided into five stages, i.e., mitigating, preparing, responding and recovering. Within the mitigation stage, lack of women access and voice in hazard mitigation is among the most prominent types of gender vulnerability found. Hence, local governments need to establish a gendered warning system and gendered risk and disaster assessment to address such vulnerabilities.
In the preparedness stage, women often lack access to disaster risk education and dissemination. Hence, all related capabilities must tackle planning, exercising, training and logistics management expertise that is sensitive to gender needs and concerns. In the response stage, women's limited access to emergency and relief services is often a challenge for effective disaster response. The capabilities are required to address the importance of gender-sensitive need assessment, networking and communication, and logistics management. The purpose of this stage is to achieve a gender-sensitive emergency and relief system. In the recovery stage, one major gender issue is a shortage of women leadership and voices in recovery and reconstruction. The capabilities need to restore women well-being and improve their coping strategies and resilience for possibilities of future disaster.
Therefore, it is important for local governments to recognize and be aware of each type of gender vulnerability and capability that is required for formulating disaster risk reduction and resilience policies and plans. Gender disaster vulnerabilities arise from barriers to resilience and are a root cause of increased risk for community resilience. Gendered vulnerabilities reduce the capacity of families and communities to anticipate, survive, resist, and recover from disasters. In the long term, gender vulnerabilities may result in unsustainable reconstruction and community development. Effective gender mainstreaming strategies should tackle both issues of vulnerability and capacity in the same time.